Table of contents

 

1. Post-edition at Unbabel

2. Grammar

2.1. Sentence structure

2.1.1 Word order

2.1.2 Nominal sentences

2.1.3 Imperatives

2.1.4 Determiners

2.2. Agreement

2.2.1 Collective or mass nouns

2.2.2 Incorrect translation of grammatical number

2.2.3 Agreement differences in British / American English

2.2.4 Gender in agreements

2.2.5 Cases

2.3. Verbs

2.3.1 Contracted verb forms

2.3.2 Picking the right tense

2.4. Personal pronouns

2.5. Possessives

2.6. Prepositions

2.6.1 Time prepositions

2.6.2 Prepositions relating to position or place

2.6.3 Adjectival and adverbial prepositions

2.6.4 Clashing prepositions

2.6.5 Differences in British English

3. Orthography

3.1. Alphabet and writing order

3.2. Apostrophe

3.2.1 Possessive apostrophes

3.2.2 Apostrophes with contracted verb forms

3.2.3 The incorrect, intrusive apostrophe

3.3. Capitalisation

3.3.1 Places and languages

3.3.2 Cardinal directions

3.3.3 Months, days of the week, public holidays and seasons

3.3.4 Titles, brands and product names

3.3.5 Institutions and administrative bodies

3.4. Compounds

3.5. Foreign words

3.6. Special symbols

4. Punctuation

4.1. How to use punctuation marks.

4.1.1 Spacing

4.1.2 Commas

4.1.3 Colons

4.1.4 Semicolons

4.1.5 Full Stops

4.1.6 Exclamation marks

4.1.7 Question marks

4.1.8 Hyphens

4.1.9 En-dash

4.1.10 Em-dash

4.1.12 Quotation marks

4.1.13 Brackets

4.2. Punctuation in greetings and closings

4.3. Punctuation in bulleted and numbered lists

5. Register

5.1. Formal register

5.2. Informal register

6. Localisation challenges

6.1. Personal names

6.2. Organisations and Events

6.3. Brands and products

6.4. Acronyms and abbreviations

6.4.1 Acronyms

6.4.2 Abbreviations of simple words

6.4.3 Abbreviations of multiword expressions

6.5. Places

6.6 Address format

6.6.1 Translated addresses

6.6.2 UK Addresses

6.7. Numeric expressions

6.8. Time expressions

6.9. Days and Months

6.10. Date expressions

6.11. Phone numbers

6.12. Currency

6.13. Measures

7. Tricky cases

7.1 Countries of the UK

7.2 Counting

7.3 Idioms and sayings

7.4 Literal translations

7.5 Inappropriate word choice

7.6 Conditional statements

8. Most frequent errors

8.1 Vocabulary

8.2 Auxiliary verbs

8.3 Past tense verbs

8.3.1 Past simple vs. present perfect

8.3.2 The past participle of get

8.4 Tag questions

8.5 Spelling

8.5.1 Common spelling differences

8.6 Prepositions

8.6.1 Consistency is key

9. Useful online resources

9.1 Bilingual dictionaries

9.2 English verb conjugator

9.3 English grammar guide

9.4 English dictionaries

9.5 Thesauruses

Welcome to the British English Language Guidelines at Unbabel.

 

If you’re here for the first time, thanks for joining us and taking the first step on your journey to be a superstar editor. 

If you’ve been here before, welcome back—you can use the Table of Contents below to find what you need.

Our best editors come from all over the world and from different backgrounds, but one thing they all have in common is they develop, learn, and grow with us. A big part of this is learning what we expect and subsequently checking these guidelines whenever they’re not sure about something. 

Read these guidelines carefully, and if you have any queries please contact us and we’ll do our best to sort everything out for you.

 

1. Post-edition at Unbabel

 

At Unbabel we have a unique approach to translation: each text submitted by a customer is translated by our Machine Translation system, and then corrected by our community of editors in an online platform. By editing the output of the software, the editors ensure the quality of the translations and confirm that the message is accurate (i.e., has the same meaning as the original), fluent (i.e., can be easily understood and sounds natural) and is in line with the style requested by the clients (i.e. respects their register and terminology). In order to help editors do the best job possible, we provide various types of information:

 

1. Customer instructions, which include the identification of the client and his requests to personalise the translation, such as the register that must be used to address the recipient of the message. Following these instructions is vital to deliver translations that match the client’s expectations.
2. Glossaries, which correspond to specific vocabulary and expressions used by the client, and that must be respected by the editors.
3. Translation Memories, which correspond to stored segments (expressions, sentences or paragraphs) that have previously been translated and accepted for customer usage. They are useful for ensuring consistency across translations.

 

We also have Smartcheck, which is an application that checks the grammar, morphology, orthography and style of the translations while being edited. By using a large set of rules, Smartcheck flags words or groups of words that may present some kind of issue.

 

Finally, in order to deliver the best possible translation, we also provide these guidelines about your language specifications. Please, read them carefully and always follow these instructions in your editions.

2. Grammar

 

2.1. Sentence structure

 

2.1.1 Word order

 

English has the advantage of being less dependent on word order than certain other languages, but the way a sentence is structured can considerably change the emphasis. 

 

Consider the following:

 

Example

✘ When outside is cold, enjoy a hot chocolate that is warm and silky after you have sunk into a comfy chair.

✓ When it's cold outside, sink into a comfy chair and enjoy a warm, silky hot chocolate.

 

Both examples are grammatically correct, but the second one would sell a lot more hot chocolate!

2.1.2 Nominal sentences

 

In English, nominal sentences are not normally used in the formal register; however, they may appear in spoken or informal texts, usually as an idiom, an exclamation or a statement. They usually miss out a verb that is unnecessary for the sentence to be understood.

 

Examples

✓ What a lovely cup of tea.  (What a lovely cup of tea this is.)

✓ The bigger the better.  (The bigger the better, I say)

✓ Stupid dog!  (You are / this is a stupid dog!)

 

2.1.3 Imperatives

 

Imperatives are only used in very direct instructions, where there is no room for doubt. This is a key concept in English (especially British English) as to overuse them can appear rude, even in written texts.

 

✓ Do not touch.

✓ Keep off the grass.

✓ Add two tablespoons of sugar and mix well.

✓ Enjoy your meal.

 

In British English particularly, it is often polite to begin imperative orders with the word please, but this wouldn't work where the order is a list of instructions, for example.

 

✘ Please add two tablespoons of sugar and mix well.

✓ Please do not touch.

2.1.4 Determiners

 

A determiner is the grammatical term for something that joins with a noun and determines properties belonging to that noun. The most common determiners in English are the articles the and a/an, but there are plenty of others, for example demonstratives (things that demonstrate what you’re talking about, e.g. this/that) and possessives (my, their, etc.).

 

There are two forms of articles in English—definite (the) and indefinite (a/an). Broadly speaking, definite articles are where you are referring to one specific thing, whereas indefinite articles refer to non-specific items:

 

Definite Could you pass me the glass of wine in front of you?

Indefinite Could you get me a glass from the cupboard?

If you’re translating from a language that doesn’t use articles in this way, for example Polish, you should take extra care to ensure that all of your translations have articles where required, as the machine translation may miss this. 

 

Example

Source text (Czech): Pes je v parku.

✘ Dog is in park.

✓ The dog is in the park.

If the noun is plural and indefinite (i.e. referring to something in general), no determiner is used. This use of a general plural without a determiner is a common English construction.

✓ Polar bears are becoming endangered due to global warming.

 

One of the most common errors in English translation in this area is the insertion of a definite determiner (the) before a plural noun which has not been previously mentioned. In the example above (Polar bears are becoming endangered due to global warming) the fact there is no determiner there indicates that the polar bears had not yet been mentioned or defined in the text and it would therefore be incorrect, in this context, to write:

 

✘ The polar bears are becoming endangered due to global warming.

 

With languages that do have indefinite plural determiners, this can prove to be a problem when translating into English.

 

Example

Source text (French): Jean est professeur et ses sœurs sont des médecins.

✘ Jean is teacher and his sisters are the doctors.

✓ Jean is a teacher and his sisters are doctors.

2.2. Agreement

Agreement in English is fairly straightforward in the vast majority of cases, and it’s not something that causes a lot of problems for editors.

 

2.2.1 Collective or mass nouns

 

Collective or mass nouns are almost always plural.

 

Example

✘ The majority of our business are conducted in Asia.

✓ The majority of our business is conducted in Asia.

 

However, in the case where the mass noun refers to something plural, in this case ‘customers’, the verb should agree with the plural noun.

 

Example

✘ The majority of our customers pays with credit card.

✓ The majority of our customers pay with credit card.

 

2.2.2 Incorrect translation of grammatical number

 

There are also a number of common cases we see across all languages where the noun is singular or plural in the source text, but in English it is the opposite.

 

Example 

Source text (Spanish): Las noticias sobre el proyecto están disponibles en nuestro sitio web. 

✘ News about the project are available on our website.

✓ News about the project is available on our website.

 

It would not be feasible to provide a list of all such nouns, but pay particular attention to news and information, both of which are singular in English and have no plural form. Please also be aware that machine translation can get these wrong, so it’s important to check texts before submitting.

 

2.2.3 Agreement differences in British / American English

 

Please be aware that there are some differences between British and American English, namely with company names or similar grammatical forms.

 

Example

American English: Apple is releasing the new iPhone on Monday.

British English: Apple are releasing the new iPhone on Monday.

 

2.2.4 Gender in agreements

 

English never refers to common nouns by gender, except poetically (e.g. I name this ship Poseidon. May God bless her and all who sail in her). The third-person gender-neutral pronoun for common nouns is it, and the possessive is its, neither of which can be used for people.

 

In many languages the gender of the person in the sentence may be obvious, in which case you should translate that gender into English, like so:

 

Example

Source text (German): Der Präsident war gestern mit seinen Kindern in Berlin.

✓ The President was in Berlin with his children yesterday.

 

If you find yourself in a situation where the gender is unclear, historically you would have used his as a default. This is no longer acceptable, and you should use the gender-neutral form of they or its related forms.

 

Example

✘ A customer called about his package yesterday.

✓ A customer called about their package yesterday.

 

2.2.5 Cases

 

English is a Germanic language and has the remnants of a complex case system, but in practice there are only a few traces left in everyday language which are normally made clear to students of English very early on, for example the use of personal pronouns after prepositions:

 

✘ Tom brought his dog with he to the beach.

✓ Tom brought his dog with him to the beach.

 

The most common error found in these constructions is when two pronouns, or a noun and pronoun, form the subject and one or more object pronouns are used in error:

 

✘ Janet and me went to the park.

✓ Janet and I went to the park.

 

Some native speakers often get this wrong. The best trick to remember how to correctly apply this is to take the other person out of the sentence and see if it sounds natural:

 

✘ Janet and me went to the park.

✓ Janet and I went to the park.

 

Here, you can see that the correct form is clearly the second, as opposed to the first; Me went to the park is clearly incorrect English.

 

In practice, the only other issue we frequently encounter at Unbabel is the use of genitive in English. In singular form, this is expressed using an apostrophe and s after the possessing person or object.

 

✓ The customer’s details were incorrect.

 

This can prove difficult in languages that express possession differently, for example using a construction that would translate to of the:

 

Source text (French): L'adresse du client n'est pas disponible.

✘ The address of the customer is unavailable.

✓ The customer’s address is unavailable.

 

Although the first translation is not grammatically incorrect, it is, stylistically speaking, a poor choice, and the second is much preferred.

 

Remember, too, that in the case of plurals the position of the apostrophe must switch, and there is no extra s.

 

Example

✘ We have three dogs and a cat. The dog’s beds are downstairs and the cat sleeps upstairs.

✓ We have three dogs and a cat. The dogs’ beds are downstairs and the cat sleeps upstairs.

2.3. Verbs

 

2.3.1 Contracted verb forms

 

Contracted verb forms are incredibly common in English. With these contractions, it’s important to strike a balance—no use at all can seem a little uptight and often will sound as if the text wasn’t written by a native, but overuse can seem too familiar in many written contexts. 

 

The use of these contractions corresponds roughly to the register of the text; the more formal the text, the less contractions should appear.

 

These fall into three main categories:

 

• Pronoun + to be or to have: I’m, he’s, I’ve, they’ve...

 

These are acceptable for any text with an informal register, and some limited use in formal texts. This should mostly be limited to use of I’m in first-person texts and customer service emails— anything else in this group should be used with extreme caution.

 

• Auxiliary or modal verbs + negative: don’t, haven’t, aren’t, can’t...

 

These are acceptable in texts with an informal register but should not be overused. They must not be used in any text with a formal register.

 

• Modal verbs in conditional sentences + to have: should’ve, could’ve, would’ve...

 

The only acceptable use of these contractions would be in extremely informal text, for example a blog article or marketing language. In emails they should not be used.

 

Double contractions (e.g. shouldn’t’ve) are a feature of colloquial speech and must not be used in any text at Unbabel.

 

2.3.2 Picking the right tense

 

All languages, even those closely related to one another, use tenses to a varying degree, and English uses a peculiar mix of tenses it has inherited from both the Germanic and Romance language groups. It’s therefore probable that some tenses in the source language will not correspond with their English equivalent, assuming that an equivalent exists in the first place.

 

For example, the future subjunctive, although common in Portuguese, is uncommon in English and translating it directly into its English counterpart would result in a bad translation. Often the answer is to use a relatively simple English tense:

 

Example

Source text (European Portuguese): Se receber a sua encomenda, por favor envie-nos uma mensagem.

✘ If you were to receive your order, please send a message.

✓ If you receive your order, please send us a message.

 

It is impossible to produce an exhaustive and comprehensive  list of all these issues, which is why it’s important to know the difficulties specific to your language(s) when translating into English.

2.4. Personal pronouns

 

Whereas other languages still use the masculine pronoun to refer to a hypothetical person where the gender is unknown, this usage has fallen out of favour in English. He/She and similar constructions were once common, but are being supplanted by they, used in the plural, to cover instances where a group of people or a single person of unknown gender is being referred to. (Be aware, though, that it may be possible to improve such a sentence by rephrasing it.)

 

If anyone needs help, they can call us on the phone.

 

There are many expectations of a successful job candidate: they will need to hit the ground running from day one.

 

The team won the cup final. They celebrated with a parade through town.

 

Note also that some people, especially in younger demographics, now consider themselves to have a non-traditional gender. This may mean that texts use the “they” pronoun in a singular sentence (i.e. They has had a good day). This is somewhat politically charged and is not yet settled or even common usage so should be approached with great caution and used only where specifically required/requested.

 

2.5. Possessives

 

Using possessive pronouns in English is perfectly acceptable—but not mandatory—when giving direct instructions.

 

Examples

If you are not happy with your purchase, you may return it for a full refund within 14 days.

You will need to keep your office window closed for the air conditioning to work.

 

However, when put into the third person, the text cannot 'face' the group it concerns. The following examples could be used in a staff training document, but not in a customer help page, because it comes across as if you are talking about someone rather than to them!

 

Examples

If customers are not happy with their purchase, they may return it for a full refund within 14 days.

The user will need to keep their office window closed for the air conditioning to work.

 

If it is not necessary to directly address a reader, the same instructions can be given without possessive pronouns.

 

Examples

Unwanted purchases may be returned for a full refund within 14 days.

The office window will need to be kept closed for the air conditioning to work.

 

This often makes the instruction simpler, but less personal, so a choice must be made depending on the aims of the text.

2.6. Prepositions

 

Prepositions in English are notoriously tricky to master, and if you’re translating from another language into English it’s important to check them thoroughly and be aware of difficulties that can arise in your specific language pair. Some of the most common examples we see at Unbabel are listed below, but it’s impossible to provide an exhaustive list.

 

Prepositions are generally grouped into three categories: time, place/position, and miscellaneous.

 

2.6.1 Time prepositions

 

Examples of prepositions relating to time (although many can be used for position, too):

 

On, in, at, since, for, ago, before, by

 

For prepositions that relate to time, in addition to checking that the corresponding preposition carries the intended meaning from the source to the target text, you should make sure that the tense used in English is correct and not a direct translation of the one used in the source language. This is a very common mistake for even very accomplished non-native speakers of English.

 

Examples

Source text (German): Ich wohne seit 1990 in Berlin.

✘ I live in Berlin since 1990.

✓ I have lived in Berlin since 1990.

 

Source text (French): J’habite à Paris depuis 1990.

✘ I live in Paris since 1990.

✓ I have lived in Paris since 1990.

 

However, remember that even if in a different context it would not change in the source language, the context for the English preposition may change and so too must the preposition in the target text.

 

Examples

Source text (German): Ich wohne seit 17 Jahren in Köln.

✘ I live in Cologne since 17 years.

✓ I have lived in Cologne for 17 years.

 

Source text (French): J’habite à Lyon depuis 12 ans.

✘ I live in Lyon since 12 years.

✓ I have lived in Lyon for 12 years.

 

2.6.2 Prepositions relating to position or place

 

Prepositions usually precede the object which they’re referring to (to the station; with the dog; at the restaurant). 

 

The most notable exception to this rule is when the preposition is found in a relative clause.

 

Example

✓ This is the book that Paul was reading from.

 

Formal English teaching in the past insisted that a clause should not end with a preposition, so the construction that was considered correct is This is the book from which Paul was reading. This construction is considered very formal and is perhaps more common in British English than American English. For the purposes of translating at Unbabel, though, it is not considered necessary. 

 

2.6.3 Adjectival and adverbial prepositions

 

Prepositions in English can take the place of adjectives or adverbs in certain situations. 

 

In cases where prepositions are used adjectivally, they must be next to the noun they are describing.

 

Example

✘ The receptionist welcomed us into the building with red hair.

✓ The receptionist with red hair welcomed us into the building.

In some cases prepositions can be used in lieu of an adverb to form part of a set phrase.

 

Example

✘ We arrived at good time.

✓ We arrived in good time.

 

There is no rule for this type of preposition, so if you’re not sure, take a second to search for it on the internet. You’ll usually be able to see very quickly which preposition you should use. Take note, though: many online references are in American English, so you must be sure that the construction is specifically mentioned as being British English before you use it.

 

2.6.4 Clashing prepositions

 

English has a lot of phrasal verbs where a preposition forms part of the action. This means that inevitably two identical prepositions sometimes appear next to each other in sentences. This is not grammatically wrong in every case, but it sounds odd most of the time and if you see this it should be avoided, either by changing one of the prepositions (if possible) or rearranging the sentence.

 

Example

✘ Despite being on a diet, he gave in in the shop and bought some ice cream.

✓ Despite being on a diet, he gave in at the shop and bought some ice cream.

✓ Despite being on a diet, he gave in and bought some ice cream in the shop.

2.6.5 Differences in British English

 

There are some differences between the particular prepositions used in American English and British English. They will be understood by users of the other variant but may well be considered incorrect or out of place. For example: 

 

American English

✓ Write me next week.

✓ Write me by email next week.

 

British English

✓ Write to me next week.

✓ Write to me by email next week.

 

Note that more modern forms of communication used as a verb do omit the preposition.

 

Examples

✓ Phone me next week.

✓ Email me next week.

✓ Text me next week.

3. Orthography

3.1. Alphabet and writing order

 

The British alphabet is made up of 26 letters. Accents are not used in English, but they may be present in foreign loanwords such as French (née), German (über), among others. In such cases, consult an English dictionary to confirm the correct usage.

3.2. Apostrophe

There are two separate uses of the apostrophe in English: possessive apostrophes and apostrophes with contracted verb forms.

3.2.1 Possessive apostrophes 

 

The most common error here is confusion between singular and plural possessive nouns. 

 

Examples

The singular genitive (one boy):

✘ The stones hit the boys' head. 

✓ The stones hit the boy's head.

 

The plural genitive (a group of boys):

✘ The stones hit the boy's heads.

✓ The stones hit the boys' heads.

 

These rules also apply in expressions of duration. Where there is more than one minute, hour, day, etc., the apostrophe goes after the s.

 

Examples

It will be an hour's journey. (a journey of an hour)

He will be here in twenty minutes' time. (a time of twenty minutes)

Irregular plurals:

Most nouns are made plural by adding an s or es to the end of the word. However, not all nouns follow this rule (e.g., women, children). Where English has an irregular plural, the apostrophe comes before the s.

 

Example

✘ The childrens' progress was remarkable.

✓ The children's progress was remarkable. 

 

Compare with the plural noun students, which is not irregular:

 

The students' progress was remarkable. 

 

3.2.2 Apostrophes with contracted verb forms

 

In informal writing and everyday speech, it is normal to contract the verb to be as well as most auxiliary verbs (e.g., can, should, have, do, etc.). 

 

Examples 

She does not have time to finish the project.

She doesn’t have time to finish the project.

 

As you can see, an apostrophe generally denotes missing letters, usually vowels, but not always. A common everyday use of this is in telling the time.

 

Example

It is 12 o'clock. (12 of the clock)

 

Be careful not to put the apostrophe in the wrong place, otherwise it loses its meaning entirely.

 

Examples

These cups are not intended for hot drinks.

 

✘These cups ar'ent intended for hot drinks.

✓These cups aren't intended for hot drinks.

 

Pronouns with have and be can be contracted in informal writing: 

It is = It's

I am = I’m

We are = We're

They are = They're

 

 Example

✘ Im happy to help.

✓ I’m happy to help.

 

Note that the same contractions can be used to mean different things.

 

Examples

He's going to be late. (He is ...)

He's already been and gone. (He has ...)

She'd never tried skiing before. (She had ...)

She'd never do that. (She would ...)

I can’t wait to see you. (I cannot ...)

 

Note that we usually avoid using contracted verb forms in formal writing. However, some clients allow it, depending on the audience and context. Revisit section G3.1 Contracted verb forms for further help.

3.2.3 The incorrect, intrusive apostrophe

Contracted verb forms can cause a common error: it's is the contracted verb form for it is and NOT the genitive pronoun.

 Examples

✘ The government considered it's position very carefully.

✓ The government considered its position very carefully.

 

✘ The company revised it’s guidelines. 

✓ The company revised its guidelines.

 

When in doubt, read the sentence without the contracted verb form. For example, The government considered it is position very carefully. This sentence does not make sense grammatically, so the apostrophe would not be used.

3.3. Capitalisation

 

The following have initial capitals (but this list is non-exhaustive):

Proper nouns 

Job titles 

Media titles (usually every word except prepositions, conjunctions or articles)

'He' in relation to God(s)

The initial letter of a quotation (even if not in quote marks)

Days, months, public holidays, etc.

 

3.3.1 Places and languages

All place names, country names, region names, and their related adjectives are capitalised. This extends to language names as well (e.g., France, the Arctic Circle, the Italian people, the German language, Chinese food, Tuscan wine, Balinese dances, Greek cooking).

 

Example

✘ The waiters speak fluent english.

✓ The waiters speak fluent English.

 

3.3.2 Cardinal directions

Points of the compass are lowercase (unless they are part of a place name, for example, South Sudan).

 

Example

✘ In the North of this region, there are extensive vineyards.

✓ In the north of this region, there are extensive vineyards.

 

3.3.3 Months, days of the week, public holidays and seasons

Names of the days of the week and names of months are capitalised.

Example

✘ on monday, 5 september

✓ on Monday, 5 September

 

Public holidays are usually capitalised (e.g. Easter Sunday, Christmas Day)

 

Seasons are usually lower case (though they can also be names of people!)

 

3.3.4 Titles, brands and product names

 

Use title case in titles, brands and product names. That means the first letter of each word making up the title, brand or product name should be capitalised: 

 

✘ Microsoft office

✓ Microsoft Office

 

✘ macbook

✓ MacBook

 

✘ Open file (menu element)

✓ Open File 

 

Even though the word after a colon is not normally capitalised in British English, title case overrides this rule.

 

Example

✘ The Mask of Zorro 2: the return of zorro

✓ The Mask of Zorro 2: The Return of Zorro

 

Internet used to always have a capital letter; it is now just the ordinary word internet.

 

3.3.5 Institutions and administrative bodies

Names of institutions, organisations and administrative bodies have initial capitals, where other languages use lowercase.

Example

Source text (Italian): Il ministero di turismo

✘ The ministry of tourism

✓ The Ministry of Tourism

3.4. Compounds

 

English does not feature official rules on compound words in the same way as, say, German. Instead, words tend to be compounded ad hoc, often with a hyphen. If the usage persists, the hyphen tends to be lost, providing the resulting word does not create an odd combination. A common example is today, which used to be written to-day. A more recent example is electronic mail, which was shortened to e-mail, and is now generally email.

 

Unfortunate letter clashes can mean that hyphens persist, particularly in British English. The hyphenation of no-one tells the reader that the word is made up of two syllables, whereas noone could be a misspelling of noon.

 

Prefixes such as re-, de-, ex- and so on usually require hyphens, but hyphens after un are unnecessary!

 

Since there are no hard and fast rules, the easiest way to avoid problems is to consult a dictionary. But be sure to consult a British one: Collins online usually clearly labels both British and American variants (if any) after the headline definition.

 

Compound modifiers usually require hyphens when they appear before a noun, but not when they follow one. The hyphen avoids confusion at what is being described. A Greek-themed restaurant is a restaurant where the theme is Greek, whereas a Greek themed restaurant might be a themed restaurant that is located in Greece.

 

✘ Banana eating chimps are common in zoos.

✓ Banana-eating chimps are common in zoos.

 

✘ People today are generally computer-literate.

✓ People today are generally computer literate.

3.5. Foreign words

 

Foreign words and phrases commonly used in English are not translated. If they have entered into English, appearing in English dictionaries, they are written normally: in vitro fertilisation; bistro; ratatouille; doppelganger. 

 

Example

Source text (Italian): Suppongo non voglia che venga interrotto il suo tête-à-tête con tuo fratello.

✘ I suppose she doesn't want me to interrupt her head to head with your brother.

✓ I suppose she doesn't want me to interrupt her tête-à-tête with your brother.

 

Note that, as shown above, many such words will retain their diacritics, particularly if they derive from French or German. Consult a dictionary for an authoritative answer.

3.6. Special symbols

 

Some symbols go by different names in American English and British English. Here are some examples:

 

 

If you are unsure, many symbols have a Wikipedia entry that lists the alternative names in use in different countries.

 

4. Punctuation

 

4.1. How to use punctuation marks.

4.1.1 Spacing

 

Note that, in English, punctuation marks are not usually preceded by a space.

 

Example

✘ The story had three parts : beginning, middle and end.

✓ The story had three parts: beginning, middle and end.

 

There are only really two exceptions to this rule. The first is where an ellipsis is used to signify that text has been cut from a direct quote.

 

Example

✓ The spokesperson said, "We have searched for the information ... from those years to no avail."

 

The second exception is where options are separated by a slash. If the options on both sides of the slash are made up of only a single word each, there is no need for a space.

 

Example

✓ You can book breakfast/lunch at reception. (Options: breakfast or lunch)

 

But if there is more than one word in at least one of the options, the slash should be bound by slashes to avoid misunderstandings.

 

✘ You can book table tennis/swimming at reception. (Options: table tennis or table swimming!)

✓ You can book table tennis / swimming at reception. (Options: table tennis or swimming)

 

✓ You can book whitewater rafting / mountain biking at reception. (Options: whitewater rafting or mountain biking)

 

4.1.2 Commas

 

In a list of three or more items, items are separated by commas rather than conjunctions. The last item in the list is preceded by the conjunction and, which is normally not preceded by a comma in British English. 

 

Sometimes, though, a comma before and—called an Oxford comma—is necessary for clarity. This is usually the case where one of the items in the list already contains and. 

 

Example

✘ My usual breakfast is coffee, bacon and eggs and toast.

✓ My usual breakfast is coffee, bacon and eggs, and toast.

 

Sometimes, confusion over the meaning of a list can be resolved when an Oxford comma is introduced.

 

Example

✘ I love my parents, Lady Gaga and Albert Einstein. 

✓ I love my parents, Lady Gaga, and Albert Einstein.

 

In cases like this, though, the neater solution can be to simply reorder the list.

 

Example

✓ I love Lady Gaga, Albert Einstein and my parents.

In an ordered list where there is no ambiguity, you should leave out the Oxford comma. 

 

Example

✘ For this recipe you will need tomatoes peppers garlic.

✓ For this recipe you will need tomatoes, peppers and garlic.

 

4.1.3 Colons

The colon is used to introduce an element or series of elements that illustrates what has preceded the colon.

 

Example

✘ In Amsterdam there are a number of museums worth visiting the Rijksmuseum, the Van Gogh Museum, and the Anne Frank House.

✓ In Amsterdam there are a number of museums worth visiting: the Rijksmuseum, the Van Gogh Museum, and the Anne Frank House.

 

They can introduce a list, as above, or another sentence that explains the preceding one.

 

Example

Colons are used relatively rarely in English: many people do not know how they work.

 

In British English, the word following a colon or semicolon in running text does not have an initial capital.

 

4.1.4 Semicolons

 

The semicolon is used between two independent clauses which are not joined by a conjunction. This is because two independent clauses cannot be joined by a comma because it creates what is known as a 'comma splice'. 

 

Semicolons are useful; they can avoid texts becoming cluttered by lots of very short sentences, one after another.

 

Beware though: unless you’re certain that semicolons are being used correctly in the text, it’s usually safer to leave them out or find an alternative. In both of the following examples, the semicolon could quite correctly be replaced by a full stop.

 

Example

✓ Call me next week; I will let you know how things went.

✓ Bill is going bald; he is losing his hair. 

 

A semicolon is also used in place of a comma to separate phrases or items in a list or series when the phrases or items themselves contain commas or are especially long. 

 

Example

✓ Harry's three favourite towns are Abingdon, Oxfordshire; Bakewell, Derbyshire; and Carlisle, Cumbria.

4.1.5 Full Stops

 

The full stop marks the end of a sentence. It is followed by a single space before the next sentence, which begins with an initial capital.

 

Note that British English does not use the American English term 'period', either as the name of the punctuation mark or colloquially to say that a thing will not happen under any circumstances.

 

Example

✘ He's not going to the party, period! (American English)

✓ He's not going to the party, full stop! (British English)

 

4.1.6 Exclamation marks

 

These are used sparingly in English, to mark emphasis.

 

Example

✓ Watch out!

 

An exclamation mark should be placed inside quotation marks or brackets if it is the quote or parenthetical itself that bears the emphasis.

 

Examples

✘ He walked off the stage to cries of "Bravo"!

✓ He walked off the stage to cries of "Bravo!".

 

✘ He asked if I remembered him (as if I could have forgotten)!

✓ He asked if I remembered him (as if I could have forgotten!).

 

When you’re translating from a different language into English it is possible that your source text may contain more exclamation marks than would be acceptable in English. They should be reserved for genuinely funny sentences or where special emphasis is required. Using too many exclamation marks is similar to using all caps in a message. While you are expected to retain the spirit of the original text, it may not be possible to keep all the exclamation marks. This is especially relevant if the register is marked as formal.

 

In these instances you should use your own professional judgment to produce the best-quality text you have.

 

Examples

✘ Check out our new collection! Act now! Get 10% off, this week only!!! (This is a special offer for selected customers!)

✓ Check out our new collection! Act now: get 10% off, this week only. (This is a special offer for selected customers.)

4.1.7 Question marks

 

Question marks are used to indicate a direct question.

 

Example

✓ Is it worth the risk?

 

They are never used for indirect questions.

 

Example

✘ He asked himself if it was worth the risk?

✓ He asked himself if it was worth the risk.

 

In English, it is not possible to simply add a question mark to a statement to turn it into a question. Instead, the question requires an auxiliary verb and a subject.

 

Example

✘ How to return a product?

✓ How to return a product. (A statement that might start a guide of how to return a product.)

✓ How do I return a product? (What a hypothetical customer might ask.)

 

4.1.8 Hyphens 

 

A hyphen can be used as a separator between number clusters for clarity, including ISBNs (978-0-226-10749), etc.

Please note that when working with Unbabel, most number clusters, including telephone numbers, will be anonymised.

 

Hyphens are also often used when writing compound adjectives. 

 

Examples

✓ The council asked for a long-term loan.

✓ The business needs computer-literate people.

 

Note, since there are few fixed rules about compounds, compound words should be checked in the dictionary. 

 

4.1.9 En-dash

 

The en-dash (alt+hyphen) is used in dates. It also can be used in other contexts when meaning to.

 

Examples

✓ Tourism grew in the years 2005–2008

✓ The Rome–Milan train leaves at two o'clock.

✓ The Senate voted 113–67 to repeal the act.

 

4.1.10 Em-dash

 

The em-dash (alt+shift+hyphen) is widely used to show parenthetical information instead of commas, colons, brackets, etc. It does not have preceding or following spaces. 

 

Examples

✘ It was the most potent image in democracy — the revolutionary idea.

✓ It was the most potent image in democracy—the revolutionary idea.

 

✓ The match—which had already been interrupted by spectators—was finally abandoned.

✓ The influence of these Venetian painters—Titian and Veronese—was immense.

 

4.1.12 Quotation marks

 

Quotation marks are used in dialogues to show direct speech and for quoted material. Previous common usage in British English was to enclose direct quotes in inverted commas (' ') rather than double quote marks (" "). The norm in UK newspapers and American English was to prefer double quote marks, and this is now generally acceptable in British English, too.

 

Examples

✓ The teacher began by saying, "Good morning."

 ✓ What is that poem that begins, "Roses are red"?

 

Errors usually relate to the punctuation of the closing mark. The question or exclamation marks are placed inside the quotation marks if they are part of the direct speech or the quotation.

 

Example

✘ I simply asked, "Can you bring me a glass of water"?

✓ I simply asked, "Can you bring me a glass of water?"

 

They are placed outside if they are part of the surrounding text and NOT the material enclosed by the quotation marks.

 

Example

✘ What is that poem that begins, "Roses are red?"

✓ What is that poem that begins, "Roses are red"?

 

Quotations within quotations are enclosed with the opposite type. The same punctuation rules apply.

 

✘ He added, 'Whoever it was that said 'Boo!' should have expected to cause a fright.'

✓ He added, 'Whoever it was that said "Boo!" should have expected to cause a fright.'

 

✘ The judge said, "I have no doubt that you intended to, as you mentioned, "cause a fright"".

✓ The judge said, 'I have no doubt that you intended to, as you mentioned, "cause a fright".'

 

If a word has not yet entered settled usage in English, or is otherwise unpalatable, it may be enclosed in 'scare quotes', which should be inverted commas. 

 

Examples 

✓ People described the stands at this year's Australian Open as being taken over by 'bogans'.

✓ But this form of 'Artificial Intelligence' still leaves a lot to be desired.

 

Where a quotation is introduced, it is usually preceded by a comma, but the comma can be replaced with a colon where appropriate.

 

Examples

✓ He said, 'Hello!'

✓ He was told: 'Do not come back here.'

 

Note that quoted speech always starts with a capital letter.

 

4.1.13 Brackets

 

Brackets should be preceded by a space and followed by a space if there is no punctuation, but there should be no initial or closing space within the brackets.

 

Example

✘ The food in this little bistro( which only has five tables )is truly excellent.

✓ The food in this little bistro (which only has five tables) is truly excellent.

 

Punctuation marks which do not belong to the material inside the brackets follow the final bracket without a space.

 

Example

✘ When you reach the top of the hill (and if you have enough breath left,) you will be able to explore the ancient fort.

✓ When you reach the top of the hill (and if you have enough breath left), you will be able to explore the ancient fort.

 

Errors arise when a full stop is used with brackets. If a full sentence beginning with a capital is enclosed in brackets, the period is within the brackets.

 

Example

✘ Guests are taken to the hotel by shuttle. (Any guests who miss the shuttle will need to take a taxi).

✓ Guests are taken to the hotel by shuttle. (Any guests who miss the shuttle will need to take a taxi.)

 

When the words enclosed in the brackets are included within another sentence (even if they form a complete sentence), the period is outside the brackets.

 

Example

✘ Guests are taken to the hotel by shuttle (the shuttle runs every hour.)

✓ Guests are taken to the hotel by shuttle (the shuttle runs every hour).

4.2. Punctuation in greetings and closings 

 

English has standard rules for greetings and closings. Whether formal or informal, the initial letter of every significant word in the greeting is capitalised; only the first word of the closure is capitalised. They are both followed by a comma.

 

Examples

✘ dear sir or madam

✓ Dear Sir/Madam,

 

✘ hi

✓ Hi,

 

✘ yours sincerely

✓ Yours sincerely,

 

✘ all the best,

✓ All the best,

 

4.3. Punctuation in bulleted and numbered lists

 

Lists can prove complex in terms of punctuation, and the choice of whether or not to use semicolons and/or full stops can complicate matters.

 

For the sake of simplicity, for Unbabel tasks you should follow the rule below.

 

If a phrase ending with a colon introduces a bulleted list of elements:

 

- Don’t end them with full stops if all list elements are short phrases (three words or fewer).

- End them with full stops if at least one element of the list is a long phrase (four words or more).

5. Register

 

Register refers to the level of formality used in the text. It shows how our clients address their customers and contributes to the voice of the brand itself. Register may vary depending on the company, the brand, the service they offer, the customers, and the target language.

Register is divided into formal and informal, as shown below.

 

In both formal and informal registers, British English tends towards politeness, using please and thank you more often than other languages or even American English. It's common to make requests, rather than give instructions (though instructions are perfectly acceptable where it is necessary to be direct).

 

Examples

Do not leave the lights on when you are out. (Direct, American English)

We would ask that you do not leave the lights on while you are out. (Very polite, British English)

Please turn off the lights when you leave. (Polite, British English)

5.1. Formal register

 

The formal register is used in professional, academic, or legal settings where communication is expected to be respectful and restrained. Slang is never used, and contractions are rare. 

 

5.2. Informal register

People use this register when they're with friends, close acquaintances, co-workers, and family. Use of slang, contractions, and vernacular grammar is common. At Unbabel, we do not use things like double contractions (e.g., shouldn’t’ve) and double negatives; these are features of colloquial speech and should be avoided. 

 

6. Localisation challenges

 

Most of these challenges refer to unique entities, such as persons, places, organisations, brands... or the specific format of dates, addresses and so on. Languages may adopt different rules regarding whether those units should be translated, reformatted or kept as in the original language. When editing a text, you should follow your language's rules for all different types of units listed below. However, please note that if there is a glossary provided by the client that includes some of them, you should always apply the glossary items.

 

6.1. Personal names

 

With a few exceptions, proper names are not translated into an English form. However, please note that at Unbabel, all personal names will be anonymised when working with some clients.  

 

Example

Source text (French): Bonjour Guillaume, Je serais ravie de pouvoir vous aider.

✘ Hello William, I would be delighted to help you.

✓ Hello Guillaume, I would be delighted to help you.

 

In British English, how a name is referred to can alter the context of the writing. In factual texts, for example, a person may be referred to by their full name the first time they appear, but then be referred to by just their surname.

 

Example

The soul singer James Brown arguably owed much to his gospel roots, but Brown’s real genius was combining his love of music with an energetic on-stage presence.

 

But the first name can be used in texts that have a more personal or biographical tone.

 

Example

Our new Product Lead is Barry Jenkinson. Barry joins us from Acme Widgets Ltd., who are now the leading widget maker in the world.

 

It is now relatively rare to refer to people by their honorific and surname (i.e. Mr Brown) unless writing an official report or other very formal document. 

6.2. Organisations and Events

 

Global organisations’ names or acronyms should be translated into their English equivalents.

 

Example

Source text (French): OMS (Organisation Mondiale del la Santé)

✘ OMS

✓WHO (World Health Organisation).

 

Government ministries should be translated, even when there is not an exact equivalent in the UK:

 

Example

Source text (French): Ministère de l'Intérieur

✓ Ministry of the Interior

 

Note that British English has some very specific (and ancient) terms for governmental positions. If there is a generic term available, it should be used for those positions in foreign governments (e.g. Finance Minister instead of Chancellor of the Exchequer).

 

Other organisations should normally be left in the original language, but glossed with an English explanation in brackets.

 

Example

Source text (Italian): CONSOB (La Commissione Nazionale per la Società e la Borsa)

✓ CONSOB (the National Commission for Companies and the Stock Exchange)

 

Major international events normally have an English equivalent, and these should be used.

 

Example

Source text (French): Festival de Cannes

✓Cannes Film Festival

 

Certain international events don’t have an English equivalent and are never translated.

 

Example

Source text (French): Le Tour de France

✘ The Lap of France

✓The Tour de France

6.3. Brands and products

 

Brand names should always be left untranslated, provided that is the name by which they are internationally recognised (e.g., Sony, Yamaha, Stiga Stjärnsunds).

 

Example

Source text (Japanese): ​​サムスンの製品とサービス

✘ サムスン products and services

✓ Samsung products and services

 

Brand names should be capitalised, except where they have become indisputably genericised and appear in a dictionary as a verb.

6.4. Acronyms and abbreviations

 

When using abbreviations, you should always use the standard British English abbreviation, if available. Do not make up abbreviations unless it is absolutely clear what is meant. Consider using the full term on the first occasion and defining the abbreviation for subsequent instances.

 

6.4.1 Acronyms

 

These are abbreviations based on the initial letters of a term (e.g., AIDS, NASA, USA, UK). Acronyms should always be translated when there is an English equivalent. They are written in full capitals without any spaces, and no periods are used.

 

Example

✘ Following the agreement between the U.S.A. and the U.K., the U.N. adopted a new strategy to tackle the aids epidemic.

✓ Following the agreement between the USA and the UK, the UN adopted a new strategy to tackle the AIDS epidemic.

 

6.4.2 Abbreviations of simple words

 

Abbreviations which are entirely lower case or end with a lowercase letter are generally followed by a period: Mr., Mrs., etc., vs., incl.

 

Examples

✘ Mr Kido, thank you for your inquiry.

✓ Mr. Kido, thank you for your inquiry.

 

✘ Do you want me to tell you which item I kept vs the ones I returned?

✓ Do you want me to tell you which item I kept vs. the ones I returned?

 

However, there are some instances where this is not the case, namely with units or measurements.

 

Example

✘ She cycled 50 km. yesterday.

✓ She cycled 50 km yesterday.

 

6.4.3 Abbreviations of multiword expressions

 

Each abbreviated word inside the abbreviation of a multiword expression or phrase (as in Latin abbreviations) is usually written in lower case and followed by a full stop: e.g., i.e., a.m., p.m.

Example

✘ The recommendation is to log in with some linked account (e.g. Facebook) and change the email.

✓ The recommendation is to log in with some linked account (e.g. Facebook) and change the email.

 

Where a sentence ends in an abbreviation, never add an extra period to mark the end of the sentence.

 

Example

✘ You must check out before 11 a.m..

✓ You must check out before 11 a.m.

6.5. Places

 

When names of countries and large cities have an obvious English equivalent, this should be used, but in general, you should leave less globally known place names in their original form.

 

Example

Source text (Italian): Val d’Aosta

✘ The Valley of the Aosta

✓ Val d’Aosta

 

With machine translation, serious errors can easily arise through the translation of place names.

 

Example

Source text (Italian): Il terremoto dell’Aquila del 2009

✘ The earthquake of the Eagle of 2009

✓ The L’Aquila earthquake of 2009

 

6.6 Address format

 

6.6.1 Translated addresses

When translating international addresses into English, as a rule, keep them in the original language, with only the country name written in English.

 

Examples

Source text (Portuguese): Rua Passos Manuel, Portugal

✘ Passos Manuel Street, Portugal 

✓ Rua Passos Manuel, Portugal  

 

Source text (German): Platz der Deutschen Post, 53113 Bonn, Deutschland

✘ Platz der Deutschen Post, 53113 Bonn, Deutschland

✓ Platz der Deutschen Post, 53113 Bonn, Germany

 

6.6.2 UK Addresses

UK addresses are in the following format:

 

Name (mostly essential, including any titles and honorifics)

Job Title (if sending to a business; often omitted)

Business Name (omitted in personal correspondence)

Flat or unit number and/or building name (possibly separated by a comma; often omitted)

Building number and street (no comma between them; essential except in rural areas and when sending to very large organisations that sometimes have their own postcodes)

Village / Small town / Area in large town (often omitted)

Post Town (essential)

County (often omitted)

Postcode (essential)

Country (omitted unless necessary)

 

Examples

Flat 1, Bayfield Gardens

29 Bryant Street

Grimmond-on-Wear

County Durham

DL8 1AA

United Kingdom

 

Rose House,

Bagshot Street

Chester

CH11 7PQ

 

High Hill Farm

Littleton

Aberdeen

AB22 4PP

 

Acme Widgets Ltd.

PO BOX 1234

Liverpool

L1 1HB

 

Sir Brian James, OBE

Chief Executive

International Widgets PLC

Widget House

London 

W12 8NN

United Kingdom

Note that a county is not the same as a country. A county is an administrative division of the UK. Counties may or may not have the word County before the name and are often now omitted from addresses.

 

As shown above, postcodes have 1–2 letters, 1–2 numbers (or, in some areas of London, a number and a letter), a space, 1 number and 2 letters. They come last apart from "United Kingdom" if mailed internationally.

 

Commas are nowadays unnecessary except for addresses written in running text.

 

Example

For further details, write to Miriam Jefferson, 42 Bryant Road, Exeter, EX6 7AA.

6.7. Numeric expressions

 

Percentage symbols are written without a preceding space.

 

Example

✘ 85 %

✓ 85%

 

There is further information about number separators in the Currency section.

6.8. Time expressions

 

English differs from other languages by using, in general, the 12-hour clock with an a.m. / p.m. (ante-meridiem–before midday; post-meridiem–after midday) format. AM/PM and am/pm are also acceptable - for more information see section O1 above.

 

The numbers used to be separated by a full stop in British English, but there is a growing trend to follow American English practice and use a colon as the separator. Either is acceptable.

 

Examples:

✓ 1.00 p.m.

✓ 1:00 p.m.

 

The abbreviations are preceded, as shown, by a space:

 

5.22 = 5:22 a.m.

17.22 = 5:22 p.m.

8.00 = 8:00 a.m.

20.00 = 8:00 p.m.

 

Note that the times with :00 can also be written without zeros; in general, try to be consistent with this throughout the text.

 

 Example

✘ Bookings for the same night should be made before 19h.

✓ Bookings for the same night should be made before 7:00 p.m.

✓ Bookings for the same night should be made before 7 p.m.

 

The abbreviations a.m. and p.m. can also be written as A.M. and P.M., am and pm or AM and PM. The chosen form must be consistent throughout the whole translation.

Example

✘ You can reach us by phone on weekdays from 11 AM to 4 p.m.

✘ You can reach us by phone on weekdays from 11 am to 4 PM.

✓ You can reach us by phone on weekdays from 11 AM to 4 PM.

✓ You can reach us by phone on weekdays from 11 a.m. to 4 p.m.

 

NOTE: In the 12-hour system, numbers are not always used to express noon or midnight.

 

Examples

✘ The meeting began at 9:45 a.m. and ended at 12:00.

✓ The meeting began at 9:45 a.m. and ended at noon.

 

Source text (Spanish): No llegamos a casa hasta las 00:00.

✓ We didn’t make it home until midnight.

 

The 24-hour clock can also be used in English. Where it is used, it is always represented as a full four-digit time and never with letters.

 

Examples

✘ 21h

✘ 16:3

✘ 14:26 p.m.

✓ 21:00

✓ 16:30

✓ 14:26

6.9. Days and Months

 

Written days and months always have an initial capital, even when abbreviated.

 

Examples

✘ april

✘ monday

✓ April

✓ Monday

 

Abbreviated days and months can be complicated. Here are some rules. 

 

May is never abbreviated. 

 

Three letter abbreviations are most common for months (i.e. Jan, Feb, Mar, Apr, May, Jun, Jul, Aug, Sep, Oct, Nov, Dec) but June and July are sometimes left whole in such a scheme. 

 

Days can be two letters (i.e. Mo, Tu, We, Th, Fr, Sa, Su) or three letters (i.e. Mon, Tue, Wed, Thu, Fri, Sat, Sun). Single letters are sometimes used where the meaning is clear, but this can be confusing.

6.10. Date expressions

 

Numerical dates are in (D)D/(M)M/YY(YY). Unlike in American English, the day precedes the month. Be aware that this can cause great confusion in internationally-written texts. 1/2/88 could mean 1 February or 2 January. Zeroes before single-digit days and months are fine. Years can be either two or four figures.

 

Examples

✘ 12/31/1988

✓ 31/12/1988

✓ 1/2/88

✓ 01/02/88

 

Numerical dates may be separated by a slash, a hyphen or a full stop. All are acceptable, but the slash is now the most common. Usage should be consistent throughout a document.

 

Examples

✓ 1/2/88

✓ 1-2-88

✓ 1.2.88

 

We strongly advise you pick the combination of the above elements that is most similar to the machine translation that is presented to you and that you are consistent throughout the text.

 

When you’re working on a task, please use the combination of the above that you think fits best with the original source text. You should also be consistent in your usage throughout the translation.

 

Written dates can come in many formats. Use commas after the name of a day or if the month is written first. 

 

Examples

✘ 31, December, 1988

✓ 31 December 1988

✓ December 31, 1988

✓ Saturday, 31 December 1988

 

Dates may use ordinal abbreviations. This is in common usage but is becoming rarer and is best avoided. The ordinal abbreviation used is determined by the rightmost number.

1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th. Numbers ending in zero use th (i.e. 10th)

 

Examples

✓ 31st December

✓ 30th January

✓ 3rd February

✓ Saturday, 31st December 1988

 

Dates where the numbers are written require hyphenation and must use of where the month follows the number.

 

Examples

✘ on twenty fourth May

✘ on twenty-fourth May

✓ on the twenty-fourth of May

✓ on May the twenty-fourth

 

Note: incomplete dates (day-month or month-year only) and/or date formats that use additional punctuation, include prepositions and/or variations in capitalisation in the source language may lead to inappropriate and/or unnatural translations, as below. Please take care to follow the rules and consider carefully whether the format sounds natural in English.

Examples

Source text (German): Am 03.10. fahren wir nach Berlin.

✘ On 03.10. we’re going to Berlin.

✓ We’re going to Berlin on 3rd October.

 

Source text (French): J'ai acheté ma télévision le 3 mars 2020.

✘ I purchased my television the 3rd march 2020.

✘ I purchased my television on 3rd march 2020.

✓ I purchased my television on 3rd March 2020.

 

Decades and centuries are written as numerals without an apostrophe (e.g. the 1980s, the 1400s). Where a decade is used as a reference to a notable period in recent history, it is usually written in words, preceded by the definite article (e.g. the roaring twenties, the swinging sixties).

6.11. Phone numbers

 

There is no hard and fast rule for phone number formats. For ease of reading, the country code, dialling code, and area code, if present, should be separated from the rest of the number.

 

UK phone numbers usually have 11 digits in one of the following formats: 

01632 960175

0306 9990912

029 2018 0550

 

For international use, +44 is added and the zero is bracketed (but not removed, otherwise it might render the number unobtainable within the local telephone network). This is true for many countries where a number is dialled to signify a call within the same country.

 

Example

+44 (0)1632 960175

 

For separating the digits in the phone number, you should use whitespaces as a rule of thumb. Dots or dashes can be used but are not appropriate in all countries, so stick to whitespaces unless a customer has specifically requested it in the client instructions.

 

Example

✘ 216-732.1578

✓ 216 732 1578

6.12. Currency

 

You should always keep ISO 4217 currency codes (USD, GBP, RUB, INR, DKK, NOK, etc.), as they are a convention accepted worldwide. The symbol usually occurs before the amount, followed by a space.

 

Example

✓ USD 2.5 million

 

Currency symbols ($, €, £...) occur before the amount as well, but they have no following space.

 

Examples

✘ $ 45.54

✘ 45.54 $

✘ 45.54$

✓ $45.54

 

✘ € 4

✘ 4€

✘ 4 €

✓ €4

 

The UK currency is the Pound Sterling, commonly referred to simply as the pound. It is divided into 100 pence, the singular of which is penny. Note that two pence is an amount of money, whereas two pennies means two coins with a value of one penny each.

 

Examples

✘ one pence

✓ one penny

✓ two pence (an amount)

✓ two pennies (two coins)

 

Numerous other international currencies are also called “pound”, but they are not the same. The ISO 4217 code for the Pound Sterling is “GBP”, but it may also (rarely) be marked as “STG” for “Sterling” (which may also appear in reference to items of silverware). The latter should not be used unless it appears in the source text.

 

The currency symbol for the pound appears before the amount, without a space. It should not appear together with the ISO 4217 code and must never be followed by a written number.

 

✘ £ 20

✘ £20 GBP

✘ £twenty

✓ £20

 

Note that the pound symbol (£) is not the same as the American pound sign (#), which is known in the UK as “hash” and is now commonly known in both countries as a “hashtag”.

 

A full stop divides pounds and pence without any spaces.

✘ £20 . 33

✓ £20.33

 

Larger amounts are divided by a comma before every three digits (i.e. once a number passes 1,000). Some documents intended for an international audience may use spaces as separators, but this is not in everyday use.

 

✘ £20000000

✓ £20,000,000

✓ £20,000,000.00

✓ GBP 20,000,000

 

When amounts go over a million pounds, they can be written in a number of ways. They may combine figures and words.

 

✘ £one million

✓ one million pounds

✓ £1 million

 

Ranges of numbers can be tricky. Make sure that the meaning is clear. For example, “£1–2 million pounds” is an amount ranging from £1 to £2,000,000, whereas “£1 million to £2 million” goes from £1,000,000 to £2,000,000.

6.13. Measures

Word order, whitespaces, abbreviations.

 

Measurements should always keep the format of the source text and should never be converted. You should only translate them when they have an equivalent term in your language.

 

Measurement abbreviations, such as kg, lb, ft, km, m, etc., are generally preceded by a space and not followed by a period (unless they’re at the end of a sentence).

 

When we write out the word, we use the plural form, while the abbreviation doesn’t have the s.

 

Example

✘The running track is 2 kms.

✓The running track is 2 kilometres long.

✓The running track is 2 km.

7. Tricky cases

 

7.1 Countries of the UK

The makeup of the UK is unusual and often hard to understand for non-natives. 

 

The United Kingdom is the political entity that is legally recognised by the UN and other countries. It was formed initially by the political union of the kingdoms of England and Scotland and is today made up of four constituent 'countries': 

England, 

Scotland, 

Wales,

Northern Ireland. 

 

There are three different sets of laws in the UK:

England and Wales, 

Scotland,

Northern Ireland.

 

Great Britain is the island that contains: 

England,

Wales,

Scotland.

But it does not contain Northern Ireland.

 

Northern Ireland is a part of the island of Ireland and should not be confused with the Republic of Ireland, which is a separate country that makes up the remainder of that island.

 

To further confuse matters, other countries’ names for the UK may refer to these different entities interchangeably, (e.g. Royaume-Uni, Großbritannien) but should be translated according to what is actually meant.

 

Be careful also not to confuse where people are from. People from Great Britain can be referred to as British, Britons or (informally) Brits. English, Welsh and Scottish people are those that are from their respective 'countries'. They are not interchangeable and should only be used where you are certain of a person's origin. People from Northern Ireland may identify as either Irish or British. (This last example is extremely sensitive and should be approached with caution.)

7.2 Counting

Twice is more common in British English than two times, but three times is more common than thrice, which is archaic.

 

7.3 Idioms and sayings

These can only very rarely be translated literally. Occasionally there will be an equivalent English saying, but otherwise, you need to simply express the intended meaning.

 

Example

Source text (Italian): Dobbiamo ingoiare il rospo.

✘ We have to swallow the toad.

✓ We have to bite the bullet.

✓ We have to put up with it.

 

7.4 Literal translations

In addition to the normal problems of literal translation, in French correspondence for example, courtesy phrases are often used, which should never be translated literally into English. Instead, the corresponding English phrase should be used.

 

Example

Source text (French): Je vous invite à consulter votre courriers indésirables.

✘ I invite you to consult your undesirable couriers.

✘ I invite you to check your spam folder.

✓ Please check your spam folder.

✓ I suggest that you check your spam folder.

 

7.5 Inappropriate word choice

Machine translation, even when of a high standard, sometimes uses the first dictionary definition of a word, which is not always appropriate in the target language.

 

Example

(The context here is a parcel being returned to its sender. The parcel will be collected by a courier, who will provide the return label.)

Source text (Italian): al momento del ritiro del pacco

✘ when the package is withdrawn

✓ when the package is collected

7.6 Conditional statements

Should, were, had you, providing, etc. may be used to make a sentence conditional, much like an IF statement in coding. In these cases, the dependent clause must be satisfied before the independent clause following it takes effect.

 

Some of these can catch non-native speakers out, since they can look very similar to questions (and particularly the way that questions are structured in other languages).

 

The structure is as follows: 

if X condition is satisfied, Y will happen.

 

Example

Should you notify us of a problem, we will do everything we can to resolve it.

 

Were adds a hypothetical element, particularly where you have a choice over whether or not to do something.

 

Example

If you were to wear the earrings, you would be unable to return them.

 

Had you suggests that the hypothetical element is in the past and cannot now be changed.

 

Example

Had you notified us before the deadline, we would have actioned your request.

 

These examples can be useful when adding detail to an earlier sentence, but they can also generally be inverted to become more active.

 

Example

Work will start immediately providing you send payment promptly.

8. Most frequent errors

8.1 Vocabulary

 

One key distinction between British English and American English is vocabulary, as hundreds of common words are different. For example, American English says apartment while British English uses flat. A short list of common word differences can be found below. However, don’t worry about getting every word correct; British and American English users will most likely guess the meaning through the sentence’s context. 

 

 

In British English, licence is a noun (e.g. an entertainments licence), whereas license is a verb (e.g.  I hereby license you to operate as a doctor; the licensing committee met last Tuesday)

 

8.2 Auxiliary verbs

 

Some differences can be found when using auxiliary verbs, also known as helping verbs. 

For example, when talking about a lack of obligation, American English will often use the helping verb do followed by the negative word not with the verb need. Meanwhile, British English will often drop the helping verb and use a contraction with not. 

 

Examples

American English: You do not need to come to work today. 

British English: You needn’t come to work today. 

 

American English: You don’t need to go there.

British English: You needn’t go there. 

 

Another slight difference is found when using the auxiliary verb shall. British English sometimes uses the word shall, which is considered very formal in American English. 

 

Example

British English: Shall we go now?

American English: Should we go now?

 

In British English, should is advisory (pedestrians should stay on the pavement) but must is mandatory (cars must drive only on the road).

8.3 Past tense verbs

8.3.1 Past simple vs. present perfect

American English tends to use the past simple form when describing something that happened recently, while British English favours the present perfect. 

 

 

 

The past tense of learn in American English is learned. British English has the option of learned or learnt. The same rule applies to words like dreamed and dreamt; burned and burnt; leaned and leant. 

 

8.3.2 The past participle of get

In the U.K., gotten as the past participle of get has been abandoned in favour of got. However, in U.S. English, people might still use gotten as the past participle.

 

Examples

American English: I haven’t gotten any news about him.

British English: I’ve not got any news about him.

 

American English: I have never gotten caught.

British English: I have never got caught.

 

We can also think about informal and formal registers here, as have got is generally considered to be more informal. In contrast, just saying have is generally appropriate for formal and informal occasions.

 

Examples

Informal register: I’ve gotten a cold.

Informal register: I have got a cold.

Could be formal or informal register: I have a cold. 

8.4 Tag questions

 

Tag questions are used to turn a statement into a question. They are more commonly found in British English. American English will also use tag questions but not as frequently.

 

Examples

The whole situation is a bit unfortunate, isn’t it?

You don’t like her, do you?

Take a seat, won’t you?

 

8.5 Spelling

 

American and British English have hundreds of small differences between spelling. However, this should not deter you as both groups of users will be able to understand each other. 

 

8.5.1 Common spelling differences

 

8.6 Prepositions 

 

You can find some very minor differences when using prepositions in American and British English. 

 

 

8.6.1 Consistency is key

 

The main thing to remember when choosing a variety is consistency. Do not switch back and forth between American and British English. 

 

Examples

✘ The defense minister first travelled to China in 2013. (American English/British English.)

✓ The defence minister first travelled to China in 2013. (British English.)

 

✘ The organisation has headquarters in Europe, but it usually organizes workshops in Asia. 

✓ The organisation has headquarters in Europe, but it usually organises workshops in Asia. 

9. Useful online resources

9.1 Bilingual dictionaries

WordReference

Linguee

 

These bilingual dictionaries are helpful because they allow editors to see words as they are used in context through external sources and forums. However, they may not be useful for every language. For example, bilingual Spanish speakers may use this resource with ease, while Portuguese speakers have found errors in the entries.  

 

9.2 English verb conjugator

Reverso

 

9.3 English grammar guide 

English Grammar Online

 

9.4 English dictionaries

Oxford English Dictionary

Collins English Dictionary

Cambridge English Dictionary

Longman Dictionary

 

The Collins dictionary is usually usefully comprehensive, showing the hyphenation of compounded terms, etc., as well as differences between American English and British English.

 

9.5 Thesauruses

 

A thesaurus is used to find synonyms or antonyms for words which can be more precise and descriptive; it’s useful when deciding the best word choice. However, it’s important to not overuse this resource. If you use a thesaurus to substitute a word, the word must be correct, and you must understand it well enough to know whether it’s correct or not. When in doubt about a word, don’t use it.

 

Oxford English Thesaurus

Collins English Thesaurus