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2.1.1. Tense, mood, aspect, person (for verbs)
2.1.2. Gender and number (nouns and adjectives)
4.1. How to use punctuation marks
4.2. Punctuation in greetings and closings
5.1. Grammatical and Lexical Registers
1. Post-edition at Unbabel
At Unbabel we have a unique approach to translation: each text submitted by a customer is translated by our Machine Translation system, and then corrected by our community of editors in an online platform. By editing the output of the software, the editors ensure the quality of the translations and confirm that the message is accurate (i.e., has the same meaning as the original), fluent (i.e., can be easily understood and sounds natural) and is in line with the style requested by the clients (i.e. respects their register and terminology). In order to help editors do the best job possible, we provide various types of information:
- Customer instructions, which include the identification of the client and his requests to personalize the translation, such as the register that must be used to address the recipient of the message. Following these instructions is vital to deliver translations that match the client’s expectations.
- Glossaries, which correspond to specific vocabulary and expressions used by the client, and that must be respected by the editors.
- Translation Memories, which correspond to stored segments (expressions, sentences or paragraphs) that have previously been translated and accepted for customer usage. They are useful for ensuring consistency across translations.
We also have Smartcheck, which is an application that checks the grammar, morphology, orthography and style of the translations while being edited. By using a large set of rules, Smartcheck flags words or groups of words that may present some kind of issue.
Finally, in order to deliver the best possible translation, we also provide these guidelines about your language specifications. Please, read them carefully and always follow these instructions in your editions.
2. Grammar
2.1. Agreement
2.1.1. Tense, mood, aspect, person (for verbs)
In French, the verb is always governed by the subject.
When the subject contains 'aucun', 'chaque', 'personne', 'rien', the verb is in the singular. When the subject contains ‘plupart', 'peau', the verb is in the plural.
When subjects are coordinated by 'ni' or 'ou', the verb is in the plural if the idea concerns the two subjects. On the contrary, if the idea concerns only one subject, the verb is in the singular.
When subjects are connected by 'ainsi', 'aussi bien que', ‘aussi’, the verb is in the plural if there are no commas separating them. On the contrary, if there are commas, the verb is in the singular.
Examples
Source text: Protection of nature and the environment as well as natural biodiversity are also cited as objectives.
✘ La protection de la nature et de l'environnement ainsi que de la biodiversité naturelle fait également partie des objectifs cités.
✓ La protection de la nature et de l'environnement ainsi que de la biodiversité naturelle font également partie des objectifs cités.
Source text: Protection of nature and the environment, as well as natural biodiversity, is also cited as objectives.
✘ La protection de la nature et de l'environnement, ainsi que de la biodiversité naturelle, font également partie des objectifs cités.
✓ La protection de la nature et de l'environnement, ainsi que de la biodiversité, naturelle fait également partie des objectifs cités.
When the past participle is used with the auxiliary verb ‘être’ (to be), this one agrees in gender and number.
Example
Source text: They left.
✘ Elles sont parti.
✓ Elles sont parties.
When the past participle is used with the auxiliary verb ‘avoir’ (to have), there are three options:
- the verb has no direct object, the past participle does not agree;
- the verb has a direct object placed after the past participle, this one does not agree;
- the verb has a direct object placed before the past participle, this one agrees in gender and number.
Examples
Source text: I picked the flowers.
✓ J’ai cueilli les fleurs.
Source text: The flowers that I picked.
✘ Les fleurs que j’ai cueilli.
✓ Les fleurs que j’ai cueillies.
2.1.2. Gender and number (nouns and adjectives)
The adjective agrees in gender and number with the noun or the pronoun to which it is related. When the adjective modifies several nouns that may belong to different genders, the adjective always occur in the masculine plural form.
Example
Source text: The sun, the sea and the sand are very relaxing.
✘ Le soleil, la mer et le sable sont très reposantes.
✓ Le soleil, la mer et le sable sont très reposants.
As with verbs, when the adjective modifies nouns that are separated by 'ou', they occur in the plural if it is related to both nouns. On the other hand, it agrees with the last noun if 'ou' implies exclusivity.
Example
Source text: She wants a warm coat or dress.
✓ Elle veut un manteau ou une robe chauds (inclusive interpretation)
✓ Elle veut un manteau ou une robe chaude (exclusive interpretation)
When the adjective modifies several synonymic nouns, it agrees with the last noun. When nouns are connected by a comparison conjunction ('ainsi', 'aussi bien que', etc.), the adjective agrees generally with the first noun. When the adjective modifies coordinated nouns without an explicit conjunction, it agrees with the last noun.
Example
Source text: This girl is of a sweetness, a unique delicacy.
✘ Cette fille est d'une douceur, d'une délicatesse uniques.
✓ Cette fille est d'une douceur, d'une délicatesse unique.
Regarding nouns that are complement of another nouns (introduced by the prepositions ‘de’ or ‘en’, for example), they occur in the singular if they denote a singular object (‘permis de conduire’), an abstract notion (‘objecteur de conscience’) or a material (‘chaise en bois’). On the other hand, it occurs in the plural if it denotes several objects.
Example
Source text: a check book
✘ un carnet de chèque
✓ un carnet de chèques
2.2. Determiners
The determiner agrees in gender and number with the name with which it occurs. The determiner is generally placed behind the name, and it can occur separated from this one by an adjective.
Examples
Source text: the house
✘ le maison
✓ la maison
Example
Source text: an old friend
✘ une viel ami
✓ un viel ami
2.3. Prepositions
A preposition is an invariable word that combines with a noun or a pronoun, expressing a certain relationship in the sentence. The prepositions ‘à’ and ‘de’ can be contracted with determiners:
- à + le = au ; à + les = aux
- de + le = du ; de + les = des.
Example
Source text: He went to the castle.
✘ Il est allé à le château.
✓ Il est allé au château.
2.4. Verbs
In French, the auxiliary verb avoir (‘to have’) is more used to form the compound tenses of all the transitive verbs in the active voice and some intransitive verbs. The auxiliary verb être (‘to be’) is more used to form the compound tenses of most of the intransitive verbs and to form passive and pronominal voice.
In presence of the double auxiliary verb in the past participle, the first used is always the auxiliary verb avoir (‘to have’). The second depends on the verb (cf. paragraph above).
Favor the use of the active voice or of the impersonal form of the verb instead of the passive voice for the translation of the passive voice in English (which occurs with a high frequency).
Example
Source text: These drawings are made by me.
✘ Ces dessins sont faits par moi.
✓ J'ai fait ces dessins.
In general, the imperative form in English can be translated into the imperative form in French. However, in the case of recipes, instructions, guides, indications, safety rules, etc., the infinitive form is preferable. If you begin to translate with an imperative or infinitive, you have to be consistent and use the same form throughout the whole document.
Example
Source text: View different options and click on the button to view more information.
✘ Voir les différentes options et cliquez sur le bouton pour afficher plus d'informations.
✓ Voir les différentes options et cliquer sur le bouton pour afficher plus d'informations.
Always favor the use of the future simple for the translation of future simple in English (I will (not) + infinitive verb).
Example
Source text: I will offer her flowers for her birthday.
✘ Je vais lui offrir des fleurs pour son anniversaire.
✓ Je lui offrirai des fleurs pour son anniversaire.
To translate the gerund forms (very frequent in English), favor other tense and verbal modes, such as the indicative present or the infinitive.
Example
Source text: Being very active on this project, I found the error quickly.
✘ Etant très active sur ce projet, j'ai trouvé l'erreur rapidement.
✓ Très active sur ce projet, j'ai trouvé l'erreur rapidement.
The same happens with the use of the passive voice, which is much more frequent in English than in French. Consequently, the active voice is always a preferable choice when translating into French.
Example
Source text: The translations are done by our editors.
✘ Les traductions sont réalisées par nos éditeurs.
✓ Nos éditeurs réalisent les traductions.
3. Orthography
3.1. Abbreviations
Abbreviations are written with a period at the end without whitespaces.
Example
Source text: Beverages containing more than 1.2% alcohol by vol. pay more taxes.
✘ Les boissons contenant plus de 1,2% d'alcool par vol paient plus d’impôts.
✓ Les boissons contenant plus de 1,2% d'alcool par vol. paient plus d’impôts.
On the contrary, units of measure (such as meter, litre, etc.) are not written with a period and are preceded by a whitespace.
Example
Source text: 75 cl of ink-jet printer is more expensive than a bottle of champagne.
✘ 75cl. d'encre pour imprimante coûtent plus cher qu'une bouteille de champagne.
✓ 75 cl d'encre pour imprimante coûtent plus cher qu'une bouteille de champagne.
3.2. Apostrophes
The apostrophe is used when the last letter of the determiner or the pronoun is a vowel or a silent ‘h’ and the first letter of the following word is also a vowel or a silent ‘h’.
Examples
Source text: The tree shelters him.
✘ le arbre le abrite.
✓ l’arbre l’abrite.
Source text: There is only one train.
✘ Il ne y a que un train.
✓ Il n’y a qu’un train.
3.3. Capitalization
As usually happens, the first letter of words is written in capital at the beginning of the sentences and after a period (except for abbreviations). There are also other cases where capitals must be used:
- only the first word of titles or subtitles (Vendredi ou la vie sauvage);
- proper nouns (people, places, organizations), nicknames, bands (Daft Punk), athletic clubs (Dijon FCO) and nationalities (les Français);
- planets (Jupiter), stars (Canis Major) and signs of the zodiac (Taureau);
- holidays and special events (Noël, Pâques);
- initials (CD – Corps Diplomatique);
- the first letter of acronyms (La France a réintégré le commandement de l'Otan);
- for monuments and buildings, the capital letter is only applied to the proper noun (la cathedral de Notre-Dame).
On the other hand, lowercase must be used in the following situations:
- titles and civil responsibilities (le président est le chef des armées et le premier ministre est responsable de la défense nationale);
- religious groups and followers of a doctrine or an ideology (chrétiens et musulmans);
- cardinal points indicating an orientation (North Bay possède l'aéroport le plus grand au nord de Toronto), excepting when they indicate an area (pollution aux particules fines dans le Nord et le Pas-de-Calais);
- names of days (lundi), months (janvier) and seasons (printemps).
3.4. Compounds
Compounds have no precise rules. However, we can establish the following:
- The words can be written together, with a hyphen or with a whitespace. The 1990-spelling reform recommend the weld of the words strongly anchored in the use: compounds of a verb followed by a name (faitout), compounds of nominal and adjectival elements (millefeuille) and onomatopoeia.
- The words are written with a hyphen if they are compound numbers.
- If the compound is a foreign word, or is composed by at least one foreign word, translate it if possible. If it is not possible, adapt it with a determiner or a hyphen (week-end instead of weekend).
The plural of a compound depends on its composition:
- noun + noun
- a) when the nouns are equally important, they both become plural (un chou-fleur; des choux-fleurs);
- b) when one noun is modifying the other (usually with a preposition), only the first one becomes plural (un chef-d'oeuvre; des chefs-d'oeuvre).
- noun + adjective
- a) both are plural (un grand-père; des grands-pères).
- adjective + adjective
- a) both are plural (un sourd-muet; des sourds-muets).
- adverb + noun
- a) only the noun is plural (un haut-parleur/des haut-parleurs).
- preposition + noun
- a) only the noun is plural (une contre-offensive; des contre-offensives).
- adverb/adjective + past participle
- a) only the participle is plural (un nouveau-né; des nouveau-nés).
- Verb/preposition + noun
- a) if the noun is concrete and countable, it is plural (un couvre-lit; des couvre-lits; un sans-abri; des sans-abris);
- b) if the noun is abstract or collective, traditionally the compound noun is invariable. However, the 1990-spelling reform allows the noun to be plural (un porte-monnaie; des porte-monnaie or des porte-monnaies).
- verb + verb
- a) the noun is invariable (un laissez-passer, des laissez-passer).
- noun + preposition + noun
- a) only the first noun is plural (fin de semaine; fins de semaine).
There are some exceptions:
- truncated units ending in -o or -i are invariable (un anglo-saxon; des anglo-saxons);
- the adjective demi is invariable (une demi-bouteille; des demi-bouteilles).
This information can be found at: https://www.lawlessfrench.com/grammar/compound-noun-plurals/
3.5 Diacritics
There are five types of diacritics in French:
- acute accent:
- is only used over the vowel e to indicate its closed stamp (médecin, marché).
- grave accent:
- is placed over the vowel e to change its sound (mère);
- is also placed over the vowels a and u to distinguish homophones (ou vs. où; la vs. là).
- circumflex accent:
- can be placed over the vowels a, e, i, o, u to change some pronunciations (fête), to serve as a marker for vowels which were followed by another letter in an earlier state of the language (forêt) or to distinguish homophones (sur vs. sûr).
- cedilla:
- is placed under the letter c before the vowels a, o and u to indicate the pronunciation /s/ (ça, aperçu). The cedilla is not used with the letters e and i (ici, merci).
- umlaut:
- is placed on the vowels e, i, and u to indicate a separate pronunciation (glaïeul).
3.6. Foreign words
Foreign words are frequently translated. When it is not the case, the use of a determiner shows its anchoring. They are written without quotation marks.
Example
Source text: Potsdamer Platz
✘ Potsdamer Platz
✓ La Potsdamer Platz
3.7. Numerals
Regarding numerals format (written in numbers or words), you must always respect the source text: if they are written as digits in the source text, this should be maintained in the translation; on the other hand, if they are written as words, they should be translated to the target language.
There are, however, some specificities for the French language:
- Use a whitespace to indicate groups of thousands, contrary to English, which uses a comma.
Example
Source text: 50,000
✘ 50,000
✓ 50 000
- Use a comma to indicate the decimal place, contrary to English, which uses a period.
Example
ENSource text: 2.5 dollars
✘ 2.5 dollars
✓ 2,5 dollars
3.8. Symbols
Symbols (%, /, |, etc.) are always preceded by a whitespace.
Example
Source text: 2.5%
✘ 2,5%
✓ 2,5 %
4. Punctuation
4.1. How to use punctuation marks
Comma | ,
-
In an enumeration;
- to separate words, groups of words or clauses coordinated by the conjunctions ‘et’ and ‘ou’ when there are two or more coordinated units;
- before ‘et’ and ‘ou’ when the coordinated clauses do not have the same subject or idea;
- before ‘car’, ‘mais’, ‘puis’, ‘sauf and the second ‘soit’ (soit… soit…) or ‘ni’ (ni… ni…);
-
to isolate or frame words, groups of words or clauses in apposition or interpolated.
✘ Marie Pierre et Paul mangent.
✓ Marie, Pierre et Paul mangent.
Colon | :
- Before an enumeration, a quotation, a reported discourse, an explanation (relation of cause or consequence);
- it is always preceded by a whitespace.
✘ Ne pas oublier
- les fruits
- le poisson
✓ Ne pas oublier :
- les fruits
- le poisson
Semicolon | ;
- To separate clauses or independent expressions which have a small relation;
- to match two clauses;
- to separate terms of an enumeration introduced by a colon;
- it is always preceded by a whitespace.
✘ Exister, c’est être là, simplement les existants apparaissent, se laissent rencontrer, mais on ne peut jamais les déduire (J.P. Sartre)
✓ Exister, c’est être là, simplement ; les existants apparaissent, se laissent rencontrer, mais on ne peut jamais les déduire (J.P. Sartre).
Period | .
- To indicate the end of a sentence.
✘ Je vais bien Et toi ?
✓ Je vais bien. Et toi ?
Exclamation point | !
- In the end of an exclamatory sentence or a sentence expressing surprise, exasperation, admiration, an order or an interjection;
- it is always preceded by a whitespace.
✘ Venez tout de suite
✓ Venez tout de suite !
Question mark | ?
- In the end of an interrogative sentence;
- it is always preceded by a whitespace.
✘ Comment vas-tu
✓ Comment vas-tu ?
Hyphen | -
- To join the parts of the same word (compounds);
- when there’s a line break.
✘ peut être; allez vous
✓ peut-être; allez-vous
En dash | -
- In a dialogue, it introduces the words spoken by the different characters or marks the interlocutor's change;
- in a list, they are used to enumerate terms.
✘ Comment vas-tu ?
Je vais bien et toi ?
✓ - Comment vas-tu ?
- Je vais bien et toi ?
Em dash | –
- To frame segments of sentences (as brackets).
✘ J’aime les pâtisseries aussi bonnes que belles que fait mon pâtissier.
✓ J’aime les pâtisseries – aussi bonnes que belles – que fait mon pâtissier.
Quote marks | « »
- To quote;
- when preceded by two points, they introduce a direct speech;
- used for a word or expression which is used in an unusual context, and which we wish to emphasize.
✘ Le destin est un danseur étoile qui fait des entrechats sur la pointe des si., A. Bragance
✓ « Le destin est un danseur étoile qui fait des entrechats sur la pointe des si. », A. Bragance
Please note that you should use the French quotation marks instead of the English quotation marks (“ ”), as these ones are only used for quotations within quotations.
Example
✓ Julie m'a dit « Marie lui a demandé “voulez-vous aller au théâtre avec moi?” ».
Also, notice that there is always a space after the first French guillemet and another one before the second.
Brackets | ( )
- To isolate words, expressions or small sentences inside a sentence;
- to indicate variants of gender and number.
✘ J’aime les pâtisseries aussi bonnes que belles que fait mon pâtissier.
✓ J’aime les pâtisseries (aussi bonnes que belles) que fait mon pâtissier.
Ellipsis | ...
- To mark an omitted word or expression;
- to remove lexical material that is less relevant or already expected in the sentence;
- to introduce hesitation or suspense;
- it is always preceded by a whitespace.
✓ Petit a petit, l’oiseau fait son nid.
✓ Petit a petit ...
4.2. Punctuation in greetings and closings
Regarding greetings, the comma is the punctuation used in French. Don't use the exclamation mark.
Examples
Source text: Hey!
✘ Bonjour !
✓ Bonjour,
Source text: Hey Susan!
✘ Bonjour Susan !
✓ Bonjour Susan,
As far as closings are concerned, French punctuation rules state that the formulas that contain a verb form are followed by a period.
Examples
Source text: Accpet our sincerest greetings.
✘ Recevez nos salutations distinguées,
✓ Recevez nos salutations distinguées.
On the other hand, the formulas that do not contain a verb are usually follwed by a comma. However, it is also frequent to have both punctuation marks (comma and period).
Source text: Kind regards.
✓ Meilleures salutations,
✓ Meilleures salutations.
Source text: Thank you.
✓ Merci,
✓ Merci.
For more information about this topic: http://bdl.oqlf.gouv.qc.ca/bdl/gabarit_bdl.asp?id=4946
5. Register
5.1. Grammatical and Lexical Registers
Register refers to the level of formality used in the text. It shows how our clients address their customers and contributes to the voice of the brand itself. Register may vary depending on the company, the brand, the service they offer, the customers, and the target language.
We make a first main distinction between grammatical and lexical register: the first one regards the use of pronouns and verb person (for the languages to which this morphological feature is applied), while the latter is related to lexical choices, since some words and expressions also have a degree of formality or colloquialism.
Both these registers are also divided into formal and informal, as shown below.
5.2. Formal Register
The formal register corresponds to a correct language, both lexically and syntactically. The sentences are sometimes complex, and the main rules of syntax are respected. It is used for professional or official communication, when the interaction is impersonal and involves a distance between the interlocutors.
|
Category
|
Examples
|
Type of Register
|
|
Personal pronouns
|
nous, vous
|
Grammatical
|
|
Verbs (person used
to conjugate the verb)
|
second person plural:
Veuillez trouver ci-joint …
|
Grammatical
|
|
Possessive pronouns
|
votre, vos
|
Grammatical
|
|
Greetings
|
Cher Monsieur,
Chère Madame,
Bonjour,
|
Lexical
|
|
Closings
|
Meilleures salutations.
Au revoir.
|
Lexical
|
5.3. Informal Register
The informal register corresponds to the ordinary language, with a larger number of liberties. This register is especially used between close friends, between people belonging to the same social community in which any formalism can be limited. Any stiff hierarchical link is absent between the interlocutors (members of the family, friends, classmates, working colleagues).
|
Category
|
Examples
|
Type of Register
|
|
Personal pronouns
|
je, tu, on
|
Grammatical
|
|
Verbs (person used
to conjugate the verb)
|
Second person singular:
Tu vas bien ?
|
Grammatical
|
|
Possessive pronouns
|
ta, ton, tes
|
Grammatical
|
|
Greetings
|
Salut,
Coucou,
|
Lexical
|
|
Closings
|
Salut.
À bientôt.
|
Lexical
|
6. Localization challenges
6.1. Proper nouns
Proper nouns refer to unique entities, such as persons, places, organizations, brands, events, etc. As foreign proper nouns are concerned, languages may adopt different rules regarding whether they should be translated or kept in the original language. When editing a text, you should follow your languages rules for all different types of proper nouns listed below. However, please note that if there is a glossary provided by the client that includes these types of units, you should always apply the glossary items.
6.1.1. Persons
The person name is kept untranslated or it can be adapted to the French writing. It is also the case of celebrities whose name has an equivalent in French.
Example
Source text: Michael Jackson
✘ Michael Jackson
✓ Mickaël Jackson
6.1.2. Places
Almost all countries as well as many cities are translated. Whenever the place has an equivalent in French, you must use it.
Example
Source text: Germany
✘ Germany
✓ Allemagne
6.1.3. Organizations
Organizations (e.g. University of Birmingham) are frequently translated. When the Organization has an equivalent in French, you must use it.
Example
Source text: University of Birmingham
✘ University of Birmingham
✓ Université de Birmingham
6.1.4. Brands and products
Brands (e.g. Sony) and products (e.g. PlayStation) are kept untranslated.
Example
Source text: I have a computer Apple.
✘ J’ai un ordinateur Pomme.
✓ J’ai un ordinateur Apple.
6.1.5. Other entities
Entities such as art (e.g. paintings), events (e.g. festivals, theatre plays), etc. are frequently translated. When it is not the case, the use of a determiner shows its anchoring.
Example
Source text: Titanic
✘ Titanic
✓ Le Titanic
6.2. Acronyms and initials
To know if an acronym/initial needs to be translated, two questions can be asked:
- does it have an equivalent in French?
- does it correspond to a company or a world-famous institution and, consequently, has a proper noun in French?
If the answer is ‘yes’, you must use the term in French.
Examples
Source text: aids
✘ aids
✓ sida
Source text: WHO (World Health Organization)
✘ WHO (World Health Organization)
✓ OMS (Organisation Mundiale de Santé)
If the answer is ‘no’, it's better to keep the acronym untranslated (i.e. as used in the source text) and provide a definition.
6.3. Date format
English differs from other languages by using, in general, the format mm/dd/yy. This means that references to date need to be changed to a dd/mm/yy format when translating into French.
Example
Source text: 01/31/18
✘ 01/31/18
✓ 31/01/18
6.4. Time format
English differs from other languages by using, in general, an am/pm format. This means that references to time need to be changed to a 24 hour format when translating into French. Note that to indicate a right time, zeros are not to be put when the number of minutes is lower than ten. Always put a whitespace between the number and the hour sign h.
Examples
Source text: 9.30 p.m.
✘ 9h30 du soir
✓ 21 h 30
Source text: 11 a.m.
✘ 11 h 00
✓ 11 h
6.5. Measures
Measures should always keep the format of the source text and should never be converted. You should only translate them when they have an equivalent term in your language.
French translates measure terms, such as inches, feet, centimeters, etc. Abbreviations should be kept (e.g. 2 ft, 20 cm).
Example
Source text: 20 centimeters
✘ 20 centimetres
✓ 20 centimètres
6.6. Currency
Currency values should be left as they are in the source text. However:
- Currency symbols (€, $, £, etc.) are placed after the number, preceded by a whitespace.
Example
Source text: €20
✘ €20
✓ 20 €
- Do not translate currency initials (USD, GBP, RUB, INR, DKK, NOK, etc.) as they are a convention accepted worldwide. In French, these initials are placed after the number, preceded by a whitespace.
Example
Source text: USD 20
✘ USD 20
✓ 20 USD
7. Most frequent errors
- Word order
Be careful, as word order is not the same than in the source text.
Example
Source text: I saw Sofia’s car yesterday.
✘ J’ai vu Sofia voiture hier.
✓ Hier, j’ai vu la voiture de Sofia.
- Omission
Do not forget that there are always determiners before common nouns.
Example
Source text: Houses are very expensive in London.
✘ Maisons sont très chères à Londres.
✓ Les maisons sont très chères à Londres.
- Agreement
Be careful of the agreement between words with respect to number, person or gender.
Example
Source text: Women are more vulnerable to poverty and discrimination.
✘ Les femmes sont plus exposés à la pauvreté et aux discriminations.
✓ Les femmes sont plus exposées à la pauvreté et aux discriminations.
8. Useful online resources
French dictionary
Bilingual dictionaries
English verb conjugator
English grammar guide
English dictionaries
Thesauruses
Papers
Riegel M., Pellat J.-C. & Rioul R. ([1994] 2009). Grammaire méthodique du français. Paris : Presses Universitaires de France (4e éd. Revue « Quadrige »).
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